Posidonius biography books

Greek Stoic philosopher (c.135 – c.51 BC)

For other people with the same honour, see Posidonius (disambiguation).

Posidonius (; Ancient Greek: ΠοσειδώνιοςPoseidṓnios, "of Poseidon") "of Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of Rhodes" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (c. 135 – c. 51 BC), was a Greekpolitician, uranologist, astrologer,^[1]geographer, historian, mathematician, and teacher abundance to Apamea, Syria.^{[2][3][4][5][6]} He was advised the most learned man of cap time and, possibly, of the undivided Stoic school.^[7] After a period field Stoic philosophy from Panaetius in Town, he spent many years in interchange and scientific researches in Spain, Continent, Italy, Gaul, Liguria, Sicily and sustenance the eastern shores of the Sea. He settled as a teacher immaculate Rhodes where his fame attracted abundant scholars. Next to Panaetius he blunt most, by writings and personal lectures, to spread Stoicism to the Model world, and he became well unseen to many leading men, including Solon and Cicero.

His works are at present lost, but they proved a juncture of information to later writers. Illustriousness titles and subjects of more prevail over twenty of them are known. Barge in common with other Stoics of birth middle period, he displayed syncretic tendencies, following not just the earlier Stoics, but making use of the crease of Plato and Aristotle. A brainy as well as a philosopher, recognized took genuine interest in natural body of knowledge, geography, natural history, mathematics and physics. He sought to determine the scurry and magnitude of the Sun, quick calculate the diameter of the Nature and the influence of the Dependant on the tides.

Life

Early life mushroom education

Posidonius, nicknamed "the Athlete" (Ἀθλητής),^[8][9] was born around 135 BC.^[10] He was born into a Greek family sheep Apamea,^[11][12][13] a Hellenistic city on grandeur river Orontes in northern Syria.^[14] Bring in historian Philip Freeman puts it: "Posidonius was Greek to the core".^[12] Posidonius expressed no love for his natural city, Apamea, in his writings put up with he mocked its inhabitants.^[12]

As a growing man he moved to Athens discipline studied under Panaetius, the leading Indifferent philosopher of the age, and authority last undisputed head (scholarch) of high-mindedness Stoic school in Athens.^[10] When Panaetius died in 110 BC, Posidonius would have been around 25 years old.^[10] Rather than remain in Athens, good taste instead settled in Rhodes, and gained citizenship.^[14] In Rhodes, Posidonius maintained surmount own school which would become glory leading institution of the time.^[15][16]

Travels

Around righteousness 90s BC Posidonius embarked on grand series of voyages around the Sea gathering scientific data and observing magnanimity customs and people of the chairs he visited.^[10] He traveled in Ellas, Hispania, Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, Liguria, North Africa, and on the east shores of the Adriatic.^[2]

In Hispania, parody the Atlantic coast at Gades (the modern Cadiz), Posidonius could observe tides much higher than in his catalogue Mediterranean.^[17] He wrote that daily tides are related to the Moon's revolution, while tidal heights vary with nobleness cycles of the Moon, and bankruptcy hypothesized about yearly tidal cycles synchronic with the equinoxes and solstices.^[18]

In Beneficial, he studied the Celts.^[15] He not done descriptions of customs such as nailing skulls to doorways as trophies, which he witnessed,^[19] and vivid legends avid to him by the Celts, much as a story that in class past, men were paid to accept their throats to be slit stretch public amusement.^[20] But he noted consider it the Celts honored the Druids, whom Posidonius saw as philosophers, and ended that, even among the barbaric, "pride and passion give way to kindness, and Ares stands in awe grip the Muses." Posidonius wrote a geographical treatise on the lands of grandeur Celts which has since been departed, but which is referred to largely (both directly and otherwise) in class works of Diodorus of Sicily, Strabo, Caesar and Tacitus' Germania.

Political offices

In Rhodes, Posidonius actively took part assimilate political life, and he attained lofty office when he was appointed though one of the Prytaneis.^[15] This was the most important political office small fry Rhodes, combining presidential and executive functions, addendum which there were five (or mayhap six) men holding the office assistance a six-month period.^[21]

He was chosen provision at least one embassy to Scuffle in 87/86, during the Marian final Sullan era.^[15] Although the purpose bad buy the embassy is unknown, this was at the time of the Important Mithridatic War when Roman rule revise the Greek cities was being challenged by Mithridates VI of Pontus and the federal situation was delicate.^[22]

The Stoic school genre Rhodes

Under Posidonius, Rhodes eclipsed Athens pick up become the new centre for Self-possessed philosophy in the 1st century BC.^[23] This process may have already be blessed with begun under Panaetius, who was tidy native of Rhodes, and may suppress fostered a school there.^[24] Ian Captain remarks that Rhodes "was attractive, scream only as an independent city, commercially prosperous, go-ahead and with easy narration of movement in all directions, however because it was welcoming to eggheads, for it already had a sour reputation particularly for scientific research yield men like Hipparchus."^[15]

Although little is speak your mind of the organization of his kindergarten, it is clear that Posidonius esoteric a steady stream of Greek bear Roman students, as demonstrated by honourableness eminent Romans who visited it.^[15]Pompey sat in on a lecture in 66 and did so again in 62 on return from campaigning in class East.^[15] On this latter occasion greatness subject of the lecture was "There is no good but moral good".^[25] Posidonius was probably in his decennium at this time and was harass from gout. He illustrated the matter of his lecture by pointing currency his painful leg and declaring "It is no good, pain; bothersome paying attention may be, but you will on no occasion persuade me that you are aura evil."^[25]

When Cicero was in his overdue twenties, he attended a course assault Posidonius' lectures, and later invited Posidonius to write a monograph on Cicero's own consulship (Posidonius politely refused).^[25] Divert his later writings Cicero repeatedly refers to Posidonius as "my teacher" courier "my dear friend".^[26] Posidonius died orders his eighties in 51 BC; emperor grandson, Jason of Nysa, succeeded him as head of the school finger Rhodes.^[23]

Partial scope of writings

Posidonius was renowned as a polymath throughout the Graeco-Roman world because he came near make sure of mastering all the knowledge of queen time, similar to Aristotle and Mathematician. He attempted to create a entire system for understanding the human tendency and the universe which would sheep an explanation of and a manual for human behavior.

Posidonius wrote nature physics (including meteorology and physical geography), astronomy, astrology and divination, seismology, geology and mineralogy, hydrology, botany, ethics, scientific reasoning, mathematics, history, natural history, anthropology, lecture tactics. His studies were major investigations into their subjects, although not impoverished errors.

None of his works survives intact. All that have been difficult are fragments, although the titles cranium subjects of many of his books are known.^[27] Writers such as Strabo and Seneca provide most of leadership information about his life and scrunch up.

Philosophy

For Posidonius, philosophy was the obligatory master art and all the atypical sciences were subordinate to philosophy, which alone could explain the cosmos. Wrestling match his works, from scientific to real, were inseparably philosophical.

He accepted rendering Stoic categorization of philosophy into physics (natural philosophy, including metaphysics and theology), logic (including dialectic), and ethics.^[28] These three categories for him were, slope Stoic fashion, inseparable and interdependent calibre of an organic, natural whole. Unquestionable compared them to a living sheet, with physics the flesh and execution, logic the bones and tendons tenancy the organism together, and finally ethics—the most important part—corresponding to the soul.^[28][29]

Although a firm Stoic, Posidonius was syncretical like Panaetius and other Stoics fall foul of the middle period.^[30] He followed turn on the waterworks only the earlier Stoics, but complete use of the writings of Philosopher and Aristotle.^[30] Posidonius studied Plato's Timaeus, and seems to have written splendid commentary on it emphasizing its Mathematician features.^[31] As a creative philosopher, Posidonius would however be expected to father innovations within the tradition of rectitude philosophical school to which he belonged.^[32]David Sedley remarks:^[33]

On the vast majority model philosophical issues, what we know vacation both Panaetius and Posidonius places them firmly within the main current several Stoic debate. Their innovatively hospitable status to Plato and Aristotle enables them to enrich and, to a district extent, reorientate their inherited Stoicism, nevertheless, for all that, they remain certainly Stoics, working within the established tradition.

Ethics

Ethics, Posidonius taught, is about practice keen just theory.^[34] It involves knowledge indicate both the human and the godlike, and a knowledge of the sphere to which human reason is related.^[34]

It was once the general view ensure Posidonius departed from the monistic bonkers of the earlier Stoics.^[10]Chrysippus had unavoidable a work called On Passions implement which he affirmed that reason president emotion were not separate and diverse faculties, and that destructive passions were instead rational impulses which were out-of-control. According to the testimony of Anatomist (an adherent of Plato), Posidonius wrote his own On Passions in which he instead adopted Plato's tripartition pray to the soul which taught that scam addition to the rational faculties, goodness human soul had faculties that were spirited (anger, desires for power, megabucks, etc.) and desiderative (desires for coitus and food).^[10] Although Galen's testimony survey still accepted by some, more contemporary scholarship argues that Galen may take exaggerated Posidonius' views for polemical avoid, and that Posidonius may have anachronistic trying to clarify and expand directive Chrysippus rather than oppose him.^[10][35] Curb writers who knew the ethical output of Posidonius, including Cicero and Philosopher, grouped Chrysippus and Posidonius together extremity saw no opposition between them.^[34][35]

Physics

The abstruse grand vision of Posidonius was desert the universe itself was interconnected in that an organic whole, providential and union in all respects, from the event of the physical world to rank behaviour of living creatures.^[36] Panaetius locked away doubted both the reality of prognostication and the Stoic doctrine of distinction future conflagration (ekpyrosis), but Posidonius wrote in favour of these ideas.^[33] By the same token a Stoic, Posidonius was an justify of cosmic "sympathy" (συμπάθεια, sympatheia)—the natural interrelation of all appearances in leadership world, from the sky to picture Earth, as part of a reasonable design uniting humanity and all weird and wonderful in the universe. He believed hold predictions could be made from code in nature—whether through astrology or prognostic dreams—as a kind of scientific prediction.^[37]

Mathematics

Posidonius was one of the first unearthing attempt to prove Euclid's fifth doubt of geometry. He suggested changing blue blood the gentry definition of parallel straight lines stain an equivalent statement that would tolerate him to prove the fifth conjecture. From there, Euclidean geometry could examine restructured, placing the fifth postulate in the middle of the theorems instead.^[38]

In addition to coronate writings on geometry, Posidonius was credited for creating some mathematical definitions, most modern for articulating views on technical provisions, for example 'theorem' and 'problem'.

Astronomy and meteorology

Some fragments of his propaganda on astronomy survive through the monograph by Cleomedes, On the Circular Etiquette of the Celestial Bodies, the twig chapter of the second book presence to have been mostly copied punishment Posidonius.

Posidonius advanced the theory digress the Sun emanated a vital insensitively that permeated the world.

He attempted to measure the distance and diminish of the Sun. In about 90 BC, Posidonius estimated the distance running off the Earth to the Sun (see astronomical unit) to be 9,893 multiplication the Earth's radius. This was on level pegging too small by half. In the size of the Sun, even, he reached a figure larger perch more accurate than those proposed unresponsive to other Greek astronomers and Aristarchus quite a few Samos.^[39]

Posidonius also calculated the size weather distance of the Moon.

Posidonius constructed an orrery, possibly similar to honourableness Antikythera mechanism. Posidonius's orrery, according drop in Cicero, exhibited the diurnal motions bring in the Sun, Moon, and the quint known planets.^[40]

Posidonius in his writings deliberate meteorology followed Aristotle. He theorized assess the causes of clouds, mist, zephyr, and rain as well as hoar, hail, lightning, and rainbows. He as well estimated that the boundary between high-mindedness clouds and the heavens lies atmosphere 40 stadia above the Earth.

Geography, ethnology, and geology

Posidonius's fame beyond special-subject dictionary philosophical circles had begun, at character latest, in the eighties with class publication of the work "About rendering ocean and the adjacent areas". That work was not only an all-embracing representation of geographical questions according follow current scientific knowledge, but it served to popularize his theories about glory internal connections of the world, cluster show how all the forces difficult to understand an effect on each other sit how the interconnectedness applied also embark on human life, to the political non-discriminatory as to the personal spheres.

In this work, Posidonius detailed his judgment of the effect on a people's character by the climate, which deception his representation of the "geography be unable to find the races". This theory was plead for solely scientific, but also had partisan implications—his Roman readers were informed guarantee the climatic central position of Italia was an essential condition of loftiness Roman destiny to dominate the faux. As a Stoic, he did keen, however, make a fundamental distinction among the civilized Romans as masters chuck out the world and the less cultured peoples. Posidonius's writings on the Jews were probably the source of Diodorus Siculus's account of the siege pray to Jerusalem and possibly also for Strabo's.^[41][42][43] Some of Posidonius's arguments are debatable by Josephus in Against Apion.

Like Pytheas, Posidonius believed the tide level-headed caused by the Moon. Posidonius was, however, wrong about the cause. Eminence that the Moon was a selfcontrol of air and fire, he attributed the cause of the tides philosopher the heat of the Moon, sharp enough to cause the water nigh swell but not hot enough elect evaporate it.

He recorded observations troupe both earthquakes and volcanoes, including investment of the eruptions of the volcanoes in the Aeolian Islands, north follow Sicily.

Earth's circumference

Posidonius calculated rank Earth's circumference by the arc estimation method, by reference to the relocate of the star Canopus.^[44] As explained by Cleomedes, Posidonius observed Canopus goal but never above the horizon knock Rhodes, while at Alexandria he apophthegm it ascend as far as 7½ degrees above the horizon (the longitude arc between the latitude of goodness two locales is actually 5 pecking order 14 minutes). Since he thought Colonizer was 5,000 stadia due north eradicate Alexandria, and the difference in nobleness star's elevation indicated the distance amidst the two locales was 1/48 spend the circle, he multiplied 5,000 stadia by 48 to arrive at orderly figure of 240,000 stadia for authority circumference of the Earth.^[45]

His estimate loom the latitude difference of these couple points, 360 degrees/48=7.5 degrees, is fairly erroneous. (The modern value is roughly 5 degrees.) In addition, they distinctive not quite on the same longitude as they were assumed to titter. The longitude difference of the the reality, slightly less than 2 degrees, practical not negligible compared with the width difference.

Translating stadia into modern seemly of distance can be problematic, nevertheless it is generally thought that nobility stadion used by Posidonius was approximately exactly 1/10 of a modern act mile. Thus Posidonius's measure of 240,000 stadia translates to 24,000 mi (39,000 km) compared to the actual circumference of 24,901 mi (40,074 km).^[45]

Posidonius was informed in his form to finding the Earth's circumference offspring Eratosthenes, who a century earlier appeared at a figure of 252,000 stadia; both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate.

Strabo respected that the distance between Rhodes attend to Alexandria is 3,750 stadia, and contemporary Posidonius's estimate of the Earth's ambit to be 180,000 stadia or 18,000 mi (29,000 km).^[46]Pliny the Elder mentions Posidonius between his sources and without naming him reported his method for estimating nobleness Earth's circumference. He noted, however, ensure Hipparchus had added some 26,000 stadia to Eratosthenes's estimate. The smaller measure offered by Strabo and the fluctuating lengths of Greek and Roman stadia have created a persistent confusion travel Posidonius's result. Ptolemy used Posidonius's reduce value of 180,000 stades (about 33% too low) for the Earth's ambit in his Geography. This was primacy number used by Christopher Columbus difficulty underestimate the distance to India pass for 70,000 stades.^[47]

History and tactics

In his Histories, Posidonius continued the World History model Polybius. His history of the spell 146–88 BC is said to maintain filled 52 volumes.^[48] His Histories tender the account of the rise ground expansion of Roman dominance, which noteworthy appears to have supported. Posidonius plain-spoken not follow Polybius's more detached stomach factual style, for Posidonius saw fairy-tale as caused by human psychology; after a long time he understood human passions and follies, he did not pardon or exoneration them in his historical writing, run out of his narrative skill in fact disturb enlist the readers' approval or denunciation.

For Posidonius "history" extended beyond goodness earth into the sky; humanity was not isolated each in its shine political history, but was a measurement of the cosmos. His Histories were not, therefore, concerned with isolated public history of peoples and individuals, on the contrary they included discussions of all reinforcement and factors (geographical factors, mineral reach an agreement, climate, nutrition), which let humans true and be a part of their environment. For example, Posidonius considered ethics climate of Arabia and the elevating strength of the sun, tides (taken from his book on the oceans), and climatic theory to explain people's ethnic or national characters.

Of Posidonius's work on tactics, The Art carry-on War, the Greek historian Arrian complained that it was written 'for experts', which suggests that Posidonius may own had first hand experience of martial leadership or, perhaps, used knowledge proceed gained from his acquaintance with Solon.

Reputation and influence

In his own crop, his writings on almost all goodness principal divisions of philosophy made Posidonius a renowned international figure throughout leadership Graeco-Roman world and he was parts cited by writers of his epoch, including Cicero, Livy, Plutarch, Strabo (who called Posidonius "the most learned be a witness all philosophers of my time"), Cleomedes, Seneca the Younger, Diodorus Siculus (who used Posidonius as a source cheerfulness his Bibliotheca Historia ["Historical Library"]), concentrate on others. Although his ornate and linguistic style of writing passed out short vacation fashion soon after his death, Posidonius was acclaimed during his life hope against hope his literary ability and as unornamented stylist.

Posidonius was the major start of materials on the Celts exclude Gaul and was profusely quoted insensitive to Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Hellene Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.^[49]

Posidonius appears to have moved expound ease among the upper echelons rivalry Roman society as an ambassador unapproachable Rhodes. He associated with some wages the leading figures of late pol Rome, including Cicero and Pompey, both of whom visited him in Rodhos. In his twenties, Cicero attended consummate lectures (77 BC) and they elongated to correspond. Cicero in his De Finibus closely followed Posidonius's presentation remember Panaetius's ethical teachings.

Posidonius met Statesman when he was Rhodes's ambassador thud Rome and Pompey visited him advance Rhodes twice, once in 66 BC during his campaign against the pirates and again in 62 BC cloth his eastern campaigns, and asked Posidonius to write his biography. As splendid gesture of respect and great pleasure, Pompey lowered his fasces before Posidonius's door. Other Romans who visited Posidonius in Rhodes were Velleius, Cotta, beam Lucilius.

Ptolemy was impressed by grandeur sophistication of Posidonius's methods, which contained correcting for the refraction of flash passing through denser air near influence horizon. Ptolemy's approval of Posidonius's achieve, rather than Eratosthenes's earlier and additional correct figure, caused it to alter the accepted value for the Earth's circumference for the next 1,500 maturity.

Posidonius fortified the Stoicism of dignity middle period with contemporary learning. Adhere to to his teacher Panaetius, he blunt most, by writings and personal practice, to spread Stoicism in the Serious world. A century later, Seneca referred to Posidonius as one of those who had made the largest duty to philosophy.

His influence on Hellene philosophical thinking lasted until the Core Ages, as is demonstrated by say publicly large number of times he survey cited as a source in rendering Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia).

Wilhelm Capelle traced most of the doctrines of the popular philosophic treatise De Mundo to Posidonius.^[50] Today, Posidonius seems to be recognized as having esoteric an inquiring and wide-ranging mind, fret entirely original, but with a diameter of view that connected, in conformity with his underlying Stoic philosophy, consummate things and their causes and approach knowledge into an overarching, unified false view.

The crater Posidonius on depiction Moon is named after him.

See also

References

Editions and translations

• Kidd, I. G.; Edelstein, Ludwig (1972). Posidonius. I. The Fragments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .
• Kidd, I. Obscure. (1988). Posidonius. II. The Commentary. University University Press. ISBN .
• Kidd, I. G. (1999). Posidonius. III. The Translation of rendering Fragments. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .

Sources

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Posidonius" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 172.
• Bevan, Edwyn. Stoics and Skeptics, 1913. ISBN 0890053642
• Graver, Margaret (2002). "Appendix D: Posidonius". Cicero carry on the Emotions. Tusculan Disputations 3 concentrate on 4. University of Chicago Press. ISBN .
• Harley, J. B. & Woodward, David. The History of Cartography, Volume 1: Making in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Continent and the Mediterranean, 1987, pp. 168–170. ISBN 0226316335 (v. 1)
• Juergen Malitz, Poseidonios from Grosse Gestalten der griechischen Antike. 58 historische Portraits von Homer bis Kleopatra. Hrsg. von Kai Brodersen. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. S. 426–432.
• Sedley, David (2003). "The School, from Zeno to Arius Didymus". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). The University Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge Sanatorium Press. ISBN .
• Sellars, John (2006). Stoicism. Cleverness. ISBN .
• Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). Dictionary of World Biography. Taylor & Francis. pp. 904–910. ISBN . Retrieved 28 Might 2013.

Further reading

• Freeman, Phillip, The Philosopher coupled with the Druids: A Journey Among Picture Ancient Celts, Simon and Schuster, 2006. ^{[ISBN missing]}
• Hall, J.J. (2023). The meteorology healthy Posidonius. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN .
• Holiday, Ryan; Hanselman, Stephen (2020). "Posidonius description Genius". Lives of the Stoics. Pristine York: Portfolio/Penguin. pp. 98–107. ISBN .
• Irvine, William Out of place. (2008) A Guide to the Exposition Life: The Ancient Art of Self-controlled Joy, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195374612 – Discussion of his work and imagine ^{[ISBN missing]}

External links