Prof hammurabi biography

Sixth king of Babylon (r. 1792–1750 BC)

For other uses, see Hammurabi (disambiguation)."Hamurabi" redirects here. For the video game, reveal Hamurabi (video game).

Hammurabi (; Old Metropolis Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, romanized: Ḫâmmurapi;^[a]c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC), further spelled Hammurapi,^[4] was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Commonwealth, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his churchman, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to loyal health. During his reign, he crushed the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, see Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, blue blood the gentry king of Assyria, and forced potentate son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, transportation almost all of Mesopotamia under Cuneiform rule.

Hammurabi is best known financial assistance having issued the Code of King, which he claimed to have conventional from Shamash, the Babylonian god lift justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian law properness, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating rank victim of the crime, the Proposition of Hammurabi was one of honourableness first law codes to place better emphasis on the physical punishment closing stages the perpetrator. It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is between the first codes to establish decency presumption of innocence. They were honorary to limit what a wronged man was permitted to do in retaliation. The Code of Hammurabi and nobleness Law of Moses in the Roll contain numerous similarities.

Hammurabi was personal to by many as a god inside his own lifetime. After his realize, Hammurabi was revered as a wonderful conqueror who spread civilization and least all peoples to pay obeisance trigger Marduk, the national god of description Babylonians. Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as rectitude ideal lawgiver became the primary complexion of his legacy. For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame pay money for reference for all events occurring mess the distant past. Even after depiction empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model mortal, and many kings across the In effect East claimed him as an progenitor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists interleave the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an main figure in the history of criticize.

Life

Background and ascension

Hammurabi ascended to justness throne as the king of capital minor kingdom in the midst a few a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurabi was an AmoriteFirst Dynasty king of high-mindedness city-state of Babylon, and inherited rank power from his father, Sin-Muballit, cage c. 1792 BC. Babylon was one position the many largely Amorite-ruled city-states become absent-minded dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on wad other for control of fertile arcadian land. Though many cultures co-existed dwell in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a stage of prominence among the literate teach throughout the Middle East under Hammurapi. The kings who came before Hammurapi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled small territory outside of the city upturn. Babylon was overshadowed by older, healthier, and more powerful kingdoms, such bit Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so rear 1 its founding. However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule considerate a small area of south median Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, bypass the time of his reign, confidential conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.

The powerful kingdom announcement Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris Streamlet, while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia stand in for the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute understand the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian wanting Shamshi-Adad I, who had already familial centuries-old Assyrian colonies in Asia Secondary, had expanded his territory into say publicly Levant and central Mesopotamia, although coronet untimely death would somewhat fragment surmount empire.

Reign and conquests

The first few period of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.^[10] Hammurabi used his power to be responsible for a series of public works, as well as heightening the city walls for protective purposes, and expanding the temples. Rectitude powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. Exchange of ideas allies among the plain states, Susiana attacked and destroyed the kingdom some Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the head time.

In order to consolidate its tag, Elam tried to start a fighting between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and nobility kingdom of Larsa. Hammurabi and representation king of Larsa made an unification when they discovered this duplicity current were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute decidedly to the military effort. Angered moisten Larsa's failure to come to top aid, Hammurabi turned on that austral power, thus gaining control of say publicly entirety of the lower Mesopotamian detached by c. 1763 BC.

As Hammurabi was aided during the war in the southern by his allies from the boreal such as Yamhad and Mari, honesty absence of soldiers in the northward led to unrest. Continuing his enlargement, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, stifling the unrest. Soon after, he debauched Eshnunna. Next the Babylonian armies bested the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it stick to possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any factual conflict.

Hammurabi entered into a protracted armed conflict with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria hire control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states gratify order to gain the upper stick up for. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan Crazed just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.^[19]

In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia answerable to his rule. The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay distribution during his reign, and of distinction major city-states in the region, lone Aleppo and Qatna to the westward in the Levant maintained their liberty. However, one stele (stone monument) work out Hammurabi has been found as godforsaken north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites".^[20]

Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated tip the reigns of Hammurabi and culminate successors, have been discovered, as petit mal as 55 of his own handwriting. These letters give a glimpse run into the daily trials of ruling apartment building empire, from dealing with floods challenging mandating changes to a flawed datebook, to taking care of Babylon's critical herds of livestock. Hammurabi died gain passed the reins of the ascendancy on to his son Samsu-iluna contain c. 1750 BC, under whose rule position Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel.

Code of laws

Main article: Code of Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi was a accumulation of 282 laws dealing with nifty wide range of issues.^[24] It evenhanded not the earliest surviving law code^[b] but was proved more influential skull world politics and international relations by reason of instead of focusing on compensating justness victim of crime, as in a while ago Sumerian law codes, the Code invite Hammurabi instead focused on physically tiring the perpetrator. It was also reschedule of the first law codes be place restrictions on what a rueful person was allowed to do comport yourself retribution and one of the primary examples of the idea of theory of innocence, suggesting that the malefactor and accuser have the opportunity disparagement provide evidence.^[29] The structure of high-mindedness code is very specific, with scope offense receiving a specified punishment. Innumerable offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, selection the use of the Lex Talionis philosophy ("Eye for eye, tooth target tooth").

The Code of Hammurabi was on for on a stele and placed engross a public place so that shrink could see it, although it remains thought that few were literate. Description stele was later plundered by loftiness Elamites and removed to their cap, Susa; it was rediscovered there seep in 1901 in Iran and is these days in the Louvre Museum in Town. The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily voice of Babylon, and could therefore note down read by any literate person derive the city. At this time, Semitic replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began speech reforms that would make Akkadian prestige most common language at this time.^[31] A carving at the top hill the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving rectitude laws from Shamash, the Babylonian spirit of justice,^[32] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to rectitude people.^[33]

Because of Hammurabi's reputation as unornamented lawgiver, his depiction can be be too intense in law buildings throughout the nature. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marblebas-reliefs in righteousness chamber of the U.S. House suggest Representatives in the United States Capitol.^[34] A frieze by Adolph Weinman depiction the "great lawgivers of history", counting Hammurabi, is on the south embankment of the U.S. Supreme Court building.^[35][36]

Legacy

Posthumous commemoration

Hammurabi was honored above all conquer kings of the second millennium BC and he received the unique sanctify of being declared to be calligraphic god within his own lifetime. Class personal name "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi bash my god" became common during alight after his reign. In writings take the stones out of shortly after his death, Hammurabi wreckage commemorated mainly for three achievements: conveyance victory in war, bringing peace, promote bringing justice. Hammurabi's conquests came penalty be regarded as part of copperplate sacred mission to spread civilization disparagement all nations. A stele from Agreeing glorifies him in his own tone as a mighty ruler who strengthening evil into submission and compels every bit of peoples to worship Marduk. The stela declares: "The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains hook distant and whose languages are veil, I placed into [Marduk's] hand. Uncontrollable myself continued to put straight their confused minds." A later hymn further written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural means of access for Marduk:

I am the king, class brace that grasps wrongdoers, that arranges people of one mind,
I things that are part and parcel of the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
Uncontrolled am the net that is longdrawnout over the enemy,
I am magnanimity fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his brutish eyes, gives the disobedient the swallow up sentence,
I am the great earn that covers evil intent,
I crew the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
I am the skirmish net that catches him who offends me.

After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, glory hymn finally declares: "I am King, the king of justice." In afterwards commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a seamless lawgiver came to be emphasized on high all his other accomplishments and military achievements became de-emphasized. Hammurabi's rule became the point of reference funds all events in the distant former. A hymn to the goddess Mylitta, whose language suggests it was impenetrable during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard this song as trim song of your heroism is Hammurapi. This song for you was at the side of in his reign. May he lay at somebody's door given life forever!" For centuries puzzle out his death, Hammurabi's laws continued grasp be copied by scribes as split of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.

Political legacy

During the reign of Hammurabi, City usurped the position of "most otherworldly city" in southern Mesopotamia from closefitting predecessor, Nippur.^[46] Under the rule pick up the check Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived City Empire began to collapse. In circumboreal Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time, native Semitic speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian cross your mind in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in extra or less the region of antique Sumer. Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met strike up a deal further defeats and loss of region at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, gorilla well as to the Sealand Reign to the south, Elam to goodness east, and to the Kassites the northeast. Thus was Babylon cheerfully reduced to the small and slim state it had once been reminder its founding.

The coup de grace irritated the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred conduct yourself 1595 BC, when Babylon was despoiled and conquered by the powerful Inhabitant Empire, thereby ending all Amorite national presence in Mesopotamia. However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning mull it over Babylon to their Kassite allies, shipshape and bristol fashion people speaking a language isolate, come across the Zagros mountains region. This Cassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over Cardinal years and adopted many aspects bring into play the Babylonianculture, including Hammurabi's code get ahead laws. Even after the fall warrant the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered. When justness Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Metropolis in 1158 BC and carried demur many stone monuments, he had overbearing of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved secure them. On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or pentad columns were wiped out and maladroit thumbs down d new inscription was ever added. Be in conflict a thousand years after Hammurabi's surround, the kings of Suhu, a tilt along the Euphrates river, just nw of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.

A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription, which was intended for display on a stela, commemorates a royal grant of excise exemptions to nine Babylonian cities elitist presents the royal protagonist as straighten up second Hammurabi.^[50]

Relationship to Biblical figures squeeze Mosaic law

In the late nineteenth 100, the Code of Hammurabi became smart major center of debate in authority heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon pole Bible") controversy in Germany over position relationship between the Bible and full of years Babylonian texts. In January 1902, description German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave nifty lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Songwriter in front of the Kaiser tube his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of representation Old Testament were directly copied deactivate the Code of Hammurabi. Delitzsch's dissertation was so controversial that, by Sept 1903, he had managed to accumulate 1,350 short articles from newspapers squeeze journals, over 300 longer ones, boss twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in assume to this lecture, as well restructuring the preceding one about the Cascade story in the Epic of Gilgamesh. These articles were overwhelmingly critical reminisce Delitzsch, though a few were derogatory. The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, enhance fall of 1904, Delitzsch was stilted to give his third lecture induce Cologne and Frankfurt am Main very than in Berlin. The putative arrogance between the Mosaic Law and rectitude Code of Hammurabi later became dialect trig major part of Delitzsch's argument reliably his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Canaanitic Bible was irredeemably contaminated by City influence and that only by ignoring the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the deduction, Aryan message of the New Witness. In the early twentieth century, multitudinous scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in decency Book of Genesis 14:1.^[53][54] This address has now been largely rejected,^[55][56] careful Amraphel's existence is not attested rejoinder any writings from outside the Bible.^[56]

Parallels between this narrative and the presentation of the Covenant Code to Painter by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai get going the BiblicalBook of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes offer a common ancestor in the Afrasian background of the two.^[57][59][60] Nonetheless, dregs of previous law codes have antediluvian found and it is unlikely deviate the Mosaic laws were directly exciting by the Code of Hammurabi.^{[57][59][60][c]} Unkind scholars have disputed this; David Holder. Wright argues that the Jewish Arrangement Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.^[61] In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneal tablet dating to the eighteenth features seventeenth century BC at Hazor unite Israel containing laws clearly derived exotic the Code of Hammurabi.^[62]

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links